Recently I have read The Prince, by Niccolò Machiavelli, as translated by Daniel Donno. As included was a few selections from his Discourses, which in their entirety apparently give a very different picture of Machiavelli's philosophy. (Although the excerpts were mainly in support of the theories of The Prince.)#

Note: The Liberty Library has his works in many formats, but not by this translator. Quotes are from my book, not this text.

Introduction#

This section gives a brief overview of Machiavelli's life and the climate during this time. A basic run down is that Machiavelli was an important advisor in Florence, and then it was taken over by someone else who deposed (and tortured) Machiavelli--who then went to live penniless on his family farm. He wrote many books after this time and convinced various members of the Medici family (notably Pope Leo X) to listen to him occasionally. The Prince is addressed to a Medici as a sort of résumé.

Machiavelli's style can be best described as to the point. There is scarcely any flattery or beautiful phrases of prose. He explicitly states that this is on purpose.

[It] is my intention to write something of use to those who will understand, I deem it best to stick to the practical truth of things rather than to fancies. Many men have imagined republics and principalities that never really existed at all. Yet the way men live is so far removed from the way they ought to live that anyone who abandons what is for what should be pursues his downfall rather than his preservation; for a man who strives after goodness in all his acts is sure to come to ruin, since there are so many men who are not good. Hence it is necessary that a prince who is interested in his survival learn to be other than good, making use of this capacity or refraining from it according to need. [pg. 56]

And Daniel Donno comments on the same:

Here there is no bowing to pious clichés, to pretended sensibilities, or hallowed euphemisms. Seldom has a writer done so little to ease the way for his ideas. And one may wonder, in fact, whether those who have reacted to Machiavelli with such voluble horror have not been more shocked by his candor than by character of the ruler he describes. [pg. 9]

These two quotes should also give a tease on the nature of Machiavelli's philosophy. It is notoriously vile and his name has become an adjective for evil and two-faced-ness. This is, as you can see, he says what does work, not what should work or how things could work, and unlike the movies--"evil" wins.

Like Leo Strauss (who is influenced by Machiavelli,) I cannot, nor do I wish to, disagree with their treatment of rulers. I could not find one thing in this book that I disagree with--if your goal is to preserve a State and make it more powerful. I cannot disagree because I think that the State is fundamentally evil, thus there is no way to "do good" with it. For this reason, I think that rulers who are serious about their State should embrace this evil and run with it--why do something if you are not going to do it right and be the best possible State you can be?

This, I believe, was Machiavelli's guideline as well. He did not wish to promote "evil" for the sake of evil. He wanted to promote guidelines that would save the country he loved (pg. 6) and ensure that if he was to be ruled, he was to be ruled right.

Another thing I should point out before I jump into the deeper commentary, is that in many regards Machiavelli's State is not as bad as it could be. For example, he makes a great deal of noise about making sure that princes do not rob from their citizens or generate excessive hatred--not because that is "wrong," but because it would weaken them.

While reading, I tried to be open to his ideas and not only focus on his reputation and the moral content of his work. I suggest if you are to read as well, that you do the same.

 

Also in the Introduction is a quotation of a letter that Machiavelli wrote, part of which I would like to quote because it explains part of my purpose in blogging:

And since Dante says that there can be no knowledge without retention, I have set down what I have gained [...] [pg. 5]

By blogging my thoughts and actions I seek not only to solicit comment but to force myself to think more completely about these things.

I. The Kinds of Principalities and the Means by Which They Are Acquired#

II. Hereditary Principalities#

III. Mixed Principalities#

A mixed principality is one that is recently conquered. Neither an "old" or "new" principality.

Machiavelli advises on how these may be made more secure. He first suggests that a prince should live in them to do them honor and pay closer attention. He also suggest that colonies be made and natives be integrated with conquerors, for tighter control and shared destinies.

He makes the interesting explanation that because land must stolen it must be stolen from those who are already hurt by the conquering, no need to create more enemies, but also only from the rich few who opposed him, not their poor subjects who have strength in numbers and little attachment to their old masters.

The other thing he writes of in this chapter is how to deal with the neighboring provinces of a recently conquered territory. The moral: Weaken the strong to avoid displacement, and help the weak, but do not make them strong.

In this matter the situation is the same as physicians report concerning hectic fever: in the beginning the disease is easy to cure but hard to diagnose; with the passage of time, having gone unrecognized and unmedicated, it becomes easy to diagnose but hard to cure. So it is with a state: when ills are recognized in advance (and only the prudent can do this), they are quickly cured. But when having gone unrecognized, they are allowed to increase until everyone may recognize them, then remedy is no longer possible. [pg. 18]

This is directly applicable in making sure that weak neighbors do not make a strong neighbor stronger and drive you out, but it is also a creed that will show itself later on. In fact it pervasive throughout Machiavelli's strategy: Control the field when you can, rather than let others take it over. This is particularly obvious with regards to his war strategies.

Consider to how failing to acknowledge this advice is playing out with the amount of money that is owed due to Social Security in the United States.

And another motto:

He who causes another to become powerful ruins himself, for he brings such a power into being either by design or by force, and both of these elements are suspect to the one whom he has made powerful. [pg. 21]

IV. Why Alexander's Successors Were Able to Keep Possession of Darius' Kingdom after Alexander's Death#

V. How to Govern Cities and Principalities That, Prior to Being Occupied, Lived Under Their Own Laws#

VI. Concerning New Principalities Acquired by One's Own Arms and Ability#

VII. Concerning New Principalities Acquired with the Arms and Fortunes of Others#

This is a glimpse at Machiavelli's opinion that one must never rely on your allies too heavily, because they become your masters and you must always keep their favour.

Also in this chapter is another sound bite that reoccurs underneath Machiavelli:

Those who believe that where great personages are concerned new favors cause old injuries to be forgotten deceive themselves. [pg. 35]

I believe this to be the logic behind his suggestion that a prince must be severe and sparing in their punishment. For once a man has been insulted or harmed, he will never forget it. You will have to kill him at some point, and rather than letting the wound grow you should kill him early. (See the first motto I mentioned.) And because you do not want to be feared unless necessary, you should seek to only punish when necessary.

VIII. Concerning Those Who Become Princes by Evil Means#

IX. Concerning the Civil Principality#

In this chapter, Machiavelli writers about the importance of citizens of a State--how they can be used, the powers the have, and the respect they require for proper maintenance of relations. The moral is that citizens who need the government will not let it fall, but if they think they don't need it all bets are off.

The ruler of this form of state must not put faith in what applies in times of peace when the citizens need the government, for then everyone runs to him, everyone promises; all are ready to die for him when the risk of death is far off. But when trouble arises, when the government is in need of its citizens, few are found willing. This sort of experience is all the more dangerous because a ruler can have it only once. Therefore a wise prince must provide in such a way that, in whatever circumstances, the citizens will always be in need of him and of his government. Then they will always be loyal to him. [pg. 42]

For example, the State may ensure that it is needed every time a new pet is purchased, or every time a new medication is invented, or when a child learns about sexuality. All things that have nothing to do with protecting life, liberty, or property and have more to do with protecting the importance of the State in the lives of all its citizens.

X. How the Strength of All Principalities Should Be Measured#

XI. Concerning Ecclesiastical Principalities#

XII. Concerning Various Kinds of Troops, and Especially Mercenaries#

XIII. Concerning Auxiliary, Mixed, and Native Forces#

In this chapter, and the last, Machiavelli explains that only native troops are trustable. Mercenaries are either strong and they will turn on you because you rely on them; or they are not strong and thus worthless. Foreign troops are akin to relying on an ally (meaning they may turn on you after the war or introduce delays due to diplomacy and increased politics) and put you under his control, in addition to the havoc they wreck because they do not respect the land they defend.

In the end, the arms of another will fall from your hand, will weigh you down, or restrain you. [pg. 52]

XIV. A Prince's Concern in Military Matters#

XV. Concerning Things for Which Men, and Princes Especially, Are Praised or Censured#

(Note: The quote from the Introduction comes from this chapter.)

XVI. Concerning Liberality and Parsimony#

XVII. Concerning Cruelty: Whether It Is Better to Be Loved Than to Be Feared, or the Reverse#

This is a very notorious chapter. It appears to me that most Machiavelli quotes come from it. Possibly the most famous of all:

Here a question arises: whether it is better to be loved than feared, or the reverse. The answer is, of course, that it would be best to be both loved and feared. But since the two rarely come together, anyone compelled to choose will find greater security in being feared than in being loved. For this can be said about the generality of men: that they are ungrateful, fickle, dissembling, anxious to flee danger, and covetous of gain. So long as you promote their advantage, they are all yours, as I said before, and will offer you their blood, their goods, their lives, and their children when the need for these is remote. When the need arise, however, they will turn against you. The prince who bases his security upon their word, lacking other provision, is doomed; for friendships that are gained by money, not by greatness and ability of spirit, may well be earned, but cannot be kept; and in time of need, they will have fled your purse. Men are less concerned about offending someone they have cause to love than someone they have cause to fear. Love endures by a bond which men, being scoundrels, may break whenever it serves their advantage to do so; but fear is supported by the dread of pain, which is ever present. [pg. 60]

The shorter form of this, in motto form:

I conclude that since men love as they themselves determine but fear as their ruler determines, a wise prince must rely upon what he and not others can control. He need only strive to avoid being hated, as I said. [pg. 61]

XVIII. In What Way Princes Should Keep Their Word#

This is another chapter that is notorious. The lesson is like other chapters: A prince should do what best suits him and his State without particular regard to any idea of "morals" or "virtue."

Hence a prince must take care never to utter a word that is not implicit with the five above-mentioned qualities; and he must never appear to be anything but they very soul of clemency, faithfulness, frankness, humanity, and religion to all who see and hear him. But of all the qualities he must seem to have, none is more important than the last. Generally, men judge by the eye rather than the hand, for all men can see a thing, but few come close enough to touch it. All men will see what you seem to be; only a few will know what you are, and those few will not dare to oppose the many who have the majesty of the state on their side to defend them. In all men's acts, and in those of princes most especially, it is the result that renders the verdict when there is no court of appeal. Let the prince conquer a state, then, and preserve it; the methods employed will always be judged honorable, and everyone will ployed will always be judged honorable, and everyone will praise them. For the mob is always impressed by appearances and by results; and the world is compose of the mob. The few cannot prevail when the many have someone to rely upon. A certain ruler of our time, whom it is better not to name, preaches nothing but peace and faith, yet he is the extreme enemy of both; and if he had been true to either of them, he would more than once have lost either power or reputation. [pg. 64]

XIX. How to Avoid Contempt and Hatred#

XX. Whether Fortresses and Many Other Expedients That Princes Commonly Employ Are Useful or Not#

XXI. What a Prince Must Do to Be Esteemed#

XXII. Concerning the Prince's Ministers#

XXIII. How to Avoid Flatterers#

In this chapter, Machiavelli explains the merits of ministers and advice in general and explains in what circumstances a prince should make use of it.

A prince, therefore, should always seek advice, but only when he, not someone else, chooses. Indeed, he should discourage everyone from giving advice unless he has asked for it. [...] His counselors would pursue their own interests and he would know neither how to rule them nor how to understand them. They could not do otherwise, for men will always prove bad unless necessity compels them to be good. Therefore I conclude that good advice, no matter where it comes from, ultimately derives from the prudence of the prince, and the prudence of the prince does not derive from good advice. [pg. 82]

He explains that if a prince relies to much on council, then that council is truly the ruler of the country in fact and it may thwart the prince's position in law.

XXIV. Why the Princes of Italy Have Lost Their States#

XXV. Concerning the Influence of Fortune in Human Affairs, and the Manner in Which It Is to Be Resisted#

XXVI. An Exhortation to Free Italy from the Hands of the Barbarians#

Excerpts from the Discourses Upon the First Ten Books of Titus Livy#

On The Religion Of The Romans

A continuation of something mentioned subtly in chapter XVIII about religion and its importance in society:

[There] was never anyone who ordained new and unusual laws among a people without having recourse to God, for they would not otherwise have been accepted. This is so because prudent men know of many beneficial things which, having no persuasive evidence for them, they cannot get others to accept. Consequently, wise men who wish to avoid this difficulty resort to divine authority. [pg. 103]

He then praises Numa over Romulus, because while Romulus founded the city, Numa made it survive by the introduction of religion.

The Multitude Is Wiser And More Constant Than A Prince

In this chapter, Machiavelli points out that there is nothing special that separates the men that make up the people from the man who is the prince, and because of this they share common faults. The only advantage that the people have is that they are not all powerful and thus have less ability to follow through with poor decisions, when considered as an aggregate. He remarks that an absolute power has nothing to stop him from making grave mistakes. He alludes that this may be an advantage in principalities, like Rome, that have laws independent of the current ruler.

That One's Country Ought To Be Defended, Whether With Shame Or Glory, By Whatever Means Possible

This decision [ed--a historical example from Rome] deserves to be noted and adopted by every citizen who may be called upon to advise his country; for where the well-being of one's country is at all in question, no consideration of justice or injustice, of mercy or cruelty, of honor or shame must be allowed to enter in at all. Indeed, every other consideration having been put aside, that course of action alone which will save the life and liberty of the country ought to be wholeheartedly pursued. [pg. 121]

This is both of affirmation of the absolute importance of the State and the justification of the majority of Machiavelli's comments. They serve to preserve the State without fail, and thus must consider only that end.

This leads me to think of something I like to say. That is, that "wars" like Iraq and Afghanistan have no proved themselves to be true wars. I mean, that because it would be impossible for the United States to loss and be conquered or overthrown, our soldiers are not fighting for our country or liberty no matter how you'd like to justify it. If a war occurs and there are reservations about using nuclear weapons if they would settle the war and ensure victory--then it is not truly a war because if we were defending our country we would stop at nothing.